BF Skinner and Motivation

Motivation is a term used in psychology to mean the cause of behavior that is persistently directed toward a goal. A simple reflex action, such as jerking one’s hand away from a hot stove, is not said to be motivated in the psychological sense. Motivation is usually made up of a combination of motives, which may also be called drives, incentives, or interests. Drives usually activate an individual to satisfy a physiological need, such as for food, sleep, or relief from pain.Incentives and interests are usually said to stimulate action that satisfies emotional and mental needs or desires. Motivation is often based on acquired social values. Such values may motivate a person to seek a college education or to win the approval of others. Another person, with different social values, might reject higher education for the immediate goal of a job in order to buy a car and expensive clothes. Adequate motivation is one of the important conditions for efficient learning. In general, the stronger the motivation, the more effectively the student will learn.Motivation research is the study of consumer’s reasons for buying or not buying certain items or services, and for preferring to do business with one firm rather than with another. Such research is a special interest to advertising agencies. Great emphasis is placed on discovering the consumer’s hidden, or unconscious, motives. To discover these motives, researchers use special tests and interviews that must be conducted and interpreted by psychologists. For example, in projective tests individuals are asked to respond to things such as words, sentences, and pictures.The responses are studied for the purpose of discovering various attitudes and opinions, called images. These images might depend on factors such as social class, occupation, age, and sex of the respondents, and can serve as a guide in creating advertisements. It might be found, for example, that a product is more likely to sell if its a dvertisement makes a person feel that his social status will improve if he buys the product. Not all psychologists accept the same theory of motivation or agree on the best way to conduct motivation research.However, conclusions reached by psychologists can serve as a source of ideas for advertising agencies. Thesis Statement: This study summarizes the field of motivation and BF Skinners theoretical views and discuss his impact on the motivation field. II. Background B. F. Skinner was the foremost behavioral psychologist in the United States. Behavioral psychology, as distinguished from the earlier, mentalistic school which focused on the mind of man, is concerned with predicting and controlling the behavior of organisms, man included.Skinner’s main work has been based in the principles operant (observable) conditioning, whereby the organism’s behavioral responses in a situation are reinforced or discouraged according to a system of rewards and punishments. Skinnerâ₠¬â„¢s experiments have shown that, through such conditioning, animal behavior can be controlled and predicted to a far greater than was ever thought possible (Smith & Sarason 18). Burrhus Frederick Skinner was born in March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pa.After graduating from Hamilton College he spent a year trying to write fiction and poetry but soon came to the conclusion that his talents law elsewhere (although he did eventually write a novel, Walden Two (1948), in which he describes a utopian community based on operant conditioning). He then went to Harvard University where he obtained a Ph. D. in psychology. An important influence there was the biologist W. J. Crozier, introduced him to animal experimentation. After teaching for several years at Minnesota and Indiana universities he joined the Harvard faculty in 1948.Skinner’s most important is the Behavior of Organisms (1938), in which he presents the basic principles of operant conditioning. These might best be understood in the context of typical experiment of Skinner’s. A rat is the context at 80 to 90 percent of its normal weight and punt into a device now known as a Skinner box. This device provides a stark environment that restricts what can happen to the rat to those events the experimenter can control or observe. The box contains an opening, through which food may be presented, and a lever.The rat presses the lever a number of times to obtain pellets of food. The rat‘s bar-press is called an operant. It does not matter how the rat presses the bar—with its paw, its tail, or its nose—the operant is the same because the consequences are the same, the eventual production of food (Smith & Sarason 18). By means of scheduling the reinforcement—the reward of food—for various numbers of bar-presses or at various time intervals, remarkably stable patters of bar-pressing may be observed. Skinner has extended to education his idea that behavior can be controlled b est in restricted environments.Teaching machines developed by him and his students immediately label correct or incorrect students’ answers to questions programmed into the machines. Thus, the students are given prompt reinforcement for the required response. According to Skinner, operant conditioning may be used to control one’s own behavior as well as he behavior of others. Only by arranging conditions so that one’s behavior is reinforced can self-control and smoking clinic made use of operant conditioning. Skinner’s ideas have also been used in behavior therapy. He believes that undesirable behavior exists, at least in part, because it is reinforced.For example, a parent may reinforce a child’s tantrums by paying more attention to the child. Through therapy, undesirable behavior may be changed by removing the reinforcement for it and reinforcing instead some other, preferable response. III. Discussion A. Skinner and Radical Behaviourism By the e nd of the first decade of the twentieth century, Freud’s method of introspection had dominated American psychology. It has become the norm and a traditional method. However, a new set of theory had developed out from dissatisfaction of the introspection method.They were convinced that the introspective method has insurmountable limitations for revealing the nature of man. They were certain that consciousness could not be accurately studied at all and decided to discard it entirely from their scientific work. Some had even denied the existence of consciousness merely because one person cannot observe it in another. Instead, they turned to man’s overt behaviour, which they studied through objective methods (Smith & Sarason 18). Their study delved into the environmental causes and how these elicit a response from an individual.This approach had come to be known as behaviourism, which also formed the basis for experimental research in the field of psychology (â€Å"The Be haviourist Approach†). A leading contemporary figure of behaviourism is B. F. Skinner of Harvard University. Skinner does not deny that mental events, images, and feelings occur within us (B. F. Skinner. â€Å"Are Theories of Learning Necessary? †), although he maintains that these are themselves behaviours rather then causes (R. Smith, I. Sarason, and B. Sarason. â€Å"The Behavioural Perspective: Humans as Reactors†).Theirs was a psychology based on stimulus-response connections, which they believed were established through a process much like the â€Å"association of ideas† first suggested by Aristotle and developed by the British philosophers of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. The basic concept of the behaviourists was that behaviour grows more complex through this process of forming new connections between stimuli and responses originally unrelated. Thus, in viewing man’s behaviour as made up of discrete, independent stim ulus-response units, behaviourism was atomistic in its approach.It proposes that much of our behaviour is dependent upon immediate consequences. A person learns certain behaviours as he reacts (responds) to a stimulus in the environment (see Are Theories of Learning Necessary? †). When such responses are positively reinforced, it is prone to be adapted. Through the process of shaping in Skinner’s operant conditioning (a significant contribution to the school of behaviourism), it could even allow for the eventual emergence of responses not yet in the person’s existing behavioural storehouse.Skinner likens the process of behaviour shaping to the way clay is moulded by the sculptor to assume its final form. A considerable contrast to Freud’s psychoanalytic approach then of behaviourism is the latter’s argument that the proper subject matter of psychology was observable, or overt, behaviour, not unobservable inner consciousness. Whereas psychoanalysis b elieves that behaviour is caused by the unconscious, in contrast, behaviourists see human beings as a product of their learning histories. Behaviourists argue that it is erroneous to believe that human behaviour is caused by inner factors.Skinner says that this diverts the attention from the real causes of behaviour, which reside in the outer world. If human beings are to be changed, indeed saved, Skinner maintains, we must manipulate the environment that determines behaviour through its pattern of rewards and punishments (see The Behaviourist Approach†). Skinner believes that large-scale control over human behaviour is possible today but that the chief barrier to social engineering is an outmoded conception of people as free agents. Since Freud and Skinner’s basis for behaviour contrasts significantly, so does its approach to modification.Skinner and his colleagues staunchly recommend that behaviour can be controlled completely by manipulating their environment, and no t through Freud’s internal introspection. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, B. F Skinner basic assumption is based on the belief that all behaviors, â€Å"normal or deviant† are governed by the same learning principles. Behaviorism originated with John B. Watson around 1913 and was carried on later by such well-known psychologists as Clark Hull and B. F. Skinner. Watson argued that it is impossible to study in scientific way phenomena that can be known only through subjective reports.If psychology was to be a science, he said, psychologists would have to concentrate on objective analysis of observable behavior, such as movements and speech; they would have to stop attempting the study of such as mental phenomena as consciousness and thought, except insofar as these phenomena were reveled in behavior. It was not that Watson had no interest in so-called mental phenomena. In fact, during the early days of behaviorism, he formulated a theory that explained thinking as subvocal ization — as movements of the vocal chords that were so light as to produce no sound.This theory, if it had been correct, would have allowed behaviorists to study thinking by analyzing the movements of the vocal cords. It was soon pointed out, however, that some thinking occurs so rapidly that the subvocalized sounds would have to be made at frequencies well beyond the physical capacity of the vocal cords, and so the effort to treat thinking as subvocalization has largely been abandoned. Reference: 1. The Behaviourist Approach†. http://www. ryerson. ca/~glassman/behavior. html 2. Skinner, B. F.â€Å"Are Theories of Learning Necessary? † http://psychclassics. yorku. ca/Skinner/Theories/ 3. Smith R, Sarason I, and Sarason B. â€Å"The Behavioural Perspective: Humans as Reactors†. Psychology, The Frontiers of Behavior. 1986. p. 18 OUTLINE I. Introduction A. What is motivation? Motivation is a term used in psychology to mean the cause of behavior that is persi stently directed toward a goal. A simple reflex action, such as jerking one’s hand away from a hot stove, is not said to be motivated in the psychological sense.Motivation is usually made up of a combination of motives, which may also be called drives, incentives, or interests. Thesis Statement: This study summarizes the field of motivation and BF Skinners theoretical views and discuss his impact on the motivation field. II. Background A. Who Bf Skinner is B. F. Skinner was the foremost behavioral psychologist in the United States. Behavioral psychology, as distinguished from the earlier, mentalistic school which focused on the mind of man, is concerned with predicting and controlling the behavior of organisms, man included.III. Discussion A. Skinner and Radical Behaviourism By the end of the first decade of the twentieth century, Freud’s method of introspection had dominated American psychology. It has become the norm and a traditional method. However, a new set of th eory had developed out from dissatisfaction of the introspection method. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, B. F Skinner basic assumption is based on the belief that all behaviors, â€Å"normal or deviant† are governed by the same learning principles.

Factors and Hazards of Infant Development Essay

Two hazards I find important to avoid are alcohol consumption and addictive drugs. In this paper I will explain the importance of these three factors and hazards. The most important factor in an infant’s development is obtaining early prenatal care. Women should make an appointment as soon as she suspects she is pregnant (Marotz & Allen, 2012). It is not good to rely on home pregnancy tests because they are sometimes not accurate especially in the early days and weeks. A health care provider can determine if you’re pregnant or not on this visit. Also, on the visit any medical issues the mother has can be evaluated and treated (2012). As long as there is no issues mothers can be encouraged to do noncontact exercise. Exercise will help with weight gain, muscles, and believed the help with easier labor and delivery (2012). â€Å"A lack of prenatal care is often associated with an increased rate of medical complications, preterm births, low birth weight infants, fetal death, and disabilities† (p. 52). A very important hazard to avoid in infant development is alcohol consumption. This can have serious consequences for mother and fetus (Marotz & Allen, 2012). â€Å"Mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy have a greater risk of miscarriages, still births, premature infants, and low-birth-weight infants. The incidence of fetal death is also significantly higher† (p. 58). According to Marots & Allen the mother and infant share a common circulatory system so they   3 both are affected by any alcohol that is consumed. The alcohol remains in the infants system longer than the mothers (2012). â€Å"Heavy or binge drinking is associated with a preventable condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which causes mental and growth retardation, behavior and learning problems, poor motor coordination, heart defects, characteristic facial deformities, and speech impairments† (p. 58-59). Another hazard to avoid is addictive drugs. Also chemicals have a major effect on development. Some of these include pesticides, fertilizers, prescriptions, nonprescription, and street drugs (Marotz & Allen, 2012). Some of the side effects of these drugs and chemicals are malformations, fetal death, premature birth, and lifelong behavior and learning disabilities (2012). â€Å"The nature and severity of an infant’s abnormalities seem to be influenced by the timing of exposure during fetal development, the amount and type of substance, the mother’s general state of health, and maternal and fetal genetics† (p. 60). Women should check with their health care provider before taking any prescription or nonprescription drugs to determine if it will be harmful for the infant. In infant development many factors and hazards are important. A woman must be very careful with everything she does. The three topics I discussed are very important to me. Seeking prenatal care will help in so many ways. The doctor can help to make sure you’re on the right track with development and also tell you what hazards to stay away from like alcohol consumption and addictive drugs and chemicals.

Vespucci, Columbus, and the New World

Before Columbus passed through the coastline of larger America, Amerigo Vespucci, whom the name America has derived, first came in. He navigated, explored, observed, made a map according to what he perceived, and made an exploration report to his King about it. In his description, we can notice a typical European character on the way he view people, environment and things. He wrote his observation on a negative perspective such as the Native Americans has no dress, no sense of ownership, no existing law, no religion, no morals, no ethics, and basically no culture.In this statement, it gave a connotation that those native inhabitants were complete bare beings, which exactly the same description of people at the back of his head as he wanted to conquer the land believing that it was his new found world for the Europeans. As we analyze Amerigo’s text, we can understand how he wanted to introduce those natives to his monarch as insignificant people. Perhaps, his intention was to g et full support from their King and Queen as they planned to completely renew their discovered land and afterwards conquer to make them own.Christopher Columbus, 1530 Unlike Amerigo’s negative introduction about the Native Americans, Columbus has a more affirmative remark on their personalities. He said that these indigenous people of America were peaceful, calm, friendly, warm, handsome and of well-built body structure. However, the presence of negativity has also transcended in his text when he described their lifestyle as having no knowledge and totally ignorance about arms made of irons as the natives’ spears were only made of woods and cane.Another unpleasant testimonial was when he stated that these natives are vulnerable and ideal to become slaves, and that with only few of Europeans could make these people defeated. We can view that those positive and negative remarks of Columbus was urged by the same intention with Amerigo, which is to persuade the monarchs an d allow them conquer the land to be the new colony of Europeans especially Portuguese. The New WorldBoth the Portuguese’s monarchs and the American natives were properly introduced by the so-called New World. Both Columbus and Vespucci has established and proposed this thought to them. To Vespucci, he thought that he discovered a world with nothing to have at all. He didn’t recognize or perhaps, he intentionally did not want to recognize the existing norm and culture of the natives because he wanted to make a change by himself and made a suggestion have the European culture on the land as a replacement on the existing norm.His idea was that Europeans like them are advanced and superior in all aspects, which means that they are the only ones capable of transforming the land and society into a much more highly regarded culture. To Columbus, he indicated that a New World has to be set by offering material things to the natives in exchange of their freedom, strength and se rvice being servants. However, his intention was not to upgrade the culture of the natives but to totally eliminate their culture for the betterment of the Europeans.

The Effectiveness of Employee Stock Ownership Plans Essay

The Effectiveness of Employee Stock Ownership Plans - Essay Example Employees do not have to pay taxes on the contributions when they work in a company. Only when they leave their job, they have to make all payments. It means that employees have a strong motivation to increase their productivity and generate higher revenues for the company in general not only because it increases their personal wage but also because they are the co-owners of the company. Thus, the effect on employees’ motivation is highly positive. Another important aspect is that employees are interested in the successful implementation of job functions of their colleagues while in the absence of this plan, they are primarily neutral. If other employees work more efficiently, it will lead to a higher gross output, and the market value of the company will increase. Consequently, the given employee may receive higher revenues even if his/her personal productivity has not increased. Thus, it may be expected that the corporate culture within such organizations will be better than in other companies. ESOP encourages the development of non-material assets in the company. However, ESOP also has some disadvantages for employees. I particular, it concentrates all employees’ shares in one company. It leads to over-concentration of risks that is generally considered as being highly negative. Therefore, employees tend to become too dependent over the dynamics of market prices of the company. In some situations, this dynamics does not correspond to their productivity. For example, during economic recessions, stock prices usually fall dramatically that may decrease the revenues of employees even if their productivity keeps rising. Another problematic aspect is that ESOP does not always result in a higher productivity of employees. It means that motivation alone is not sufficient for higher output and better overall economic results. Moreover, some employees may hope to receive a higher remuneration in an